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In late 2025, artificial intelligence companies like OpenAI automated the process of determining which model is best for a task. This allowed users to simply send their prompt and let the system determine whether to respond “fast" or "slow". In a 2022 paper, I suggested that this kind of strategic deployment of slow, more reflective reasoning could be crucial to good judgment and decision-making. Since then, I have been synthesizing the arguments and evidence for this view in a paper titled, "Strategic Reflectivism in Intelligent Systems". After the new paper was accepted in Lecture Notes In Computer Science, I recorded a podcast of me reading the final proofs of the paper. I review evidence suggesting that one key to intelligence in humans and machines is pragmatic switching between intuitive and reflective thinking based on the goals of the system. The paper has a wide range of implications for applied science, computer science, decision science, and epistemology. Byrd, N. (2025). Strategic Reflectivism In Intelligent Systems. Lecture Notes In Computer Science. Preprint: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2505.22987 As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode's affiliate partner is Road Runner Sports. For about a year I've been adding a weekly marathon to my exercise routine. So shoes, socks, headphones, shorts, and other fitness products have felt more important to me lately. What I like about Road Runner Sports is their integration of online and in-store retail; I can try things on in person, deliver to the store for free, return and exchange in person, etc. I am not stuck doing everything online. To meet your running needs, check out roadrunnersports.sjv.io/byrdnick. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. If you like what you hear, you can subscribe wherever you find podcasts, follow on BlueSky at @ByrdNick.com, on Mastadon (@ByrdNick), and all the other platforms.  If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it — online, in person, or in your review. Related posts The Bias Fallacy The Base Rate Fallacy The Appeal to Intuition: A Fallacy? Upon Reflection, Ep. 9: Bounded Reflectivism & Epistemic Identity 25+ Cognitive Science Podcasts

You may have heard me drone on and on about this thing called "reflective thinking". We philosophers and cognitive scientists are preoccupied with it. However, the term 'reflection' is sometimes used in different ways by scholars. To unify, make sense of, and guide our research, I synthesized a unified account from hundreds of years of English language, from philosophers, and from cognitive science. The result is this paper. In this episode, I'll read the paper, which explains the two key features of 'reflection' and how we measure them. This two-factor account of reflective thinking has implications for theories of rationality, self-knowledge, and dual-process theories. Byrd, N. (2025). A Two-Factor Explication of “Reflection”: Unifying, Making Sense of, and Guiding the Philosophy and Science of Reflective Reasoning. Res Philosophica, 102(3), 373–392. https://doi.org/10.5840/resphilosophica2711 As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode's affiliate partner is Coursera. Coursera has something for everyone: students, teachers, schools, companies, and even governments. Find out how they can serve your education needs at Coursera.com/BYRD. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. If you like what you hear, you can subscribe wherever you find podcasts, follow on BlueSky at @ByrdNick.com, on Mastadon (@ByrdNick), and all the other platforms.  If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your review. Related posts On Whether Reflection Is A Skill The Roles of Intuition & Reflection in Skill & Expertise On Whether Reflection Is A Virtue What good is reflective reasoning? What Is Reflective Reasoning?

You may have heard that atheists tend to score better on reflection tests than theists? But why do scientists find this "analytic atheism" correlation? Many studies have attempted to answer this question. Of course, even the best studies had limitations. So Steve Stich, Justin Sytsma, and I developed better methods and studied over 70,000 people on 6 continents. What did we find? Apostasy was key. Those who shed their religion since childhood were the most reflective. Lifelong atheists were not necessarily more reflective than theists. In other words, the analytic atheism correlation seems to be explained by analytic apostasy. In this episode, I'll explain the methods, results, and implications in our paper "Analytic Atheism & Analytic Apostasy Across Cultures" which will be published in Religious Studies. Byrd, N., Stich, S., & Sytsma, J. (2025). Analytic atheism and analytic apostasy across cultures. Religious Studies. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412525000198 As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode's affiliate partner is PDF Expert. Since I bought PDF Expert in January 2016, it has been my primary reading and annotating app on Mac, iPad, and iPhone. I often try the best free and paid competitors, but I keep coming back to PDF Expert. Find out why at readdle.8kpa2n.net/Byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. If you like what you hear, you can subscribe wherever you find podcasts, follow on BlueSky at @ByrdNick.com, on Mastadon (@ByrdNick), and all the other platforms.  If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your review. Related posts Upon Reflection, Ep. 10: Great Minds Do Not Think Alike Religiosity & Reflection Research Derek Leben's "When Psychology Undermines [Moral and Religious] Beliefs" The Meaning Problem & Academic Lexicons 8 Sources Of Morality

Suppose you glance at a clock that, unbeknownst to you, is broken, showing the same time all day. Nonetheless, you happened to look at the clock precisely when it showed the correct time. So your belief about the time is correct. My question is this: did you know what time it is? Perhaps you think that you did. After all, you formed a belief on the basis of a device that most people trust and the belief was true! What else would it mean to know something? Well, in academic philosophy, the orthodox answer to this kind of thought experiment is "no". People who perform better on tests of reflective thinking tend to report philosophers' orthodox answer to this kind of thought experiment. And, if you've been following my research, you know that philosophers are particularly reflective thinkers. These correlations may make you wonder about causation. Does thinking reflectively cause people to accept philosophers' orthodoxy? Or is it the other way around: does studying thought experiments like the broken clock case somehow result in people performing better on reflection tests? In this episode, I'll tell you about the experiment I ran to find out. The paper is titled "Reflection-Philosophy Order Effects and Correlations Across Samples" and has been accepted for publication in Analysis. The paper will also mention a bunch of other thought experiments, tests of reflective thinking, and measures of research participants' data quality. Byrd, N. (2025). Reflection-Philosophy Order Effects and Correlations Across Samples. Analysis. Preprint: 10.31234/osf.io/y8sdm. Open access article: 10.1093/analys/anaf015 As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode's affiliate partner is Spark Education, who is offering free 30-minute class demo for your child. You can read about the testimonials, stats, and all the activities included in their latest offer at SparkMath.pxf.io/PObNOR. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. If you like what you hear, you can subscribe wherever you find podcasts, follow on BlueSky at @ByrdNick.com, on Mastadon (@ByrdNick), and all the other platforms.  If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your review. Related posts Upon Reflection, Ep. 10: Great Minds Do Not Think Alike Upon Reflection, Ep. 8: Reflective Reasoning & Philosophy Upon Reflection, Ep. 6: Your Health vs. My Liberty (COVID-19 Research Paper) Upon Reflection, Ep. 2: Not All Who Ponder Count Costs (Reflection & Moral Dilemmas) Oppenheimer: ‘Philosopher-Scientist-Statesman’

I have a question for you: "If a bat and a ball cost $1.10 in total and the bat costs $1.00 more than the ball, how much does the ball cost?". Did 10 cents seem right? The authors of questions like this are attempting to lure you to accept this incorrect answer in order to test whether you thought reflectively when you solved the problem. However, there may be problems with this method of testing reflective thinking. So my colleagues used some underrated methods to determine the degree to which tests like this misclassify correct responses as reflective or lured responses as unreflective. I'll read the paper in this episode. The (free) paper is "Tell Us What You Really Think: A think-aloud protocol analysis of the Verbal Cognitive Reflection Test". Special thanks to co-authors Brianna Joseph and Gabriela Gongora for helping me with Study 1 and to co-author Miroslav Sirota for helping with conceptualization and revisions. This paper is dedicated to the late Anders Ericsson (1947-2020), who helped inform the development of our online think-aloud protocol (Study 2). Byrd, N., Joseph, B., Gongora, G., & Sirota, M. (2023). Tell Us What You Really Think: A Think Aloud Protocol Analysis of the Verbal Cognitive Reflection Test. Journal of Intelligence, 11(4), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040076 As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This podcast is sponsored by Namecheap. Namecheap is committed to offering the best value and customer service for website domains, hosting, and SSL encryption certificates. After looking at their offers, I was tempted to switch my website to their services. You can learn more namecheap.pxf.io/byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts Upon Reflection, Ep. 10: Great Minds Do Not Think Alike Upon Reflection, Ep. 8: Reflective Reasoning & Philosophy What good is reflective reasoning? The Roles of Intuition & Reflection in Skill & Expertise On Whether Reflection Is A Virtue

In this episode, I read my short paper with Morgan Thompson in WIRES Cognitive Science titled, "Testing for Implicit Bias: Values, Psychometrics, and Science Communication". You may have heard about implicit bias. It is measured by indirect rather than direct measures of bias. We reconstruct arguments from debates about these measures, reveal some instances of talking past one another, highlight how debate has changed, and highlight how the debate is laden with value judgments about psychometrics and science communication. As always, free preprints of my papers are available on my CV under "Publications". Byrd, N., & Thompson, M. (2022). Testing for Implicit Bias: Values, Psychometrics, and Science Communication. WIREs Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1612 This podcast is sponsored by Homer. Homer is a learning program for kids delivered through devices like tablets. It covers reading, math, creativity, critical thinking, and even socio-emotional learning. Try a free trial or just learn more at the link in the podcast description (homer.i8epma.net/byrd). You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts Upon Reflection Podcast Ep. 1: What We Can Infer About Implicit Bias Implicit Bias & Philosophy Debiasing in Administration, Advising, & Teaching Implicit Bias | Part 3: Workplace Bias Implicit Bias | Part 4: Ten Debiasing Strategies

This time I read my 2022 paper in Review of Philosophy and Psychology titled, "Great Minds Do Not Think Alike: Philosophers' Views Predicted by Reflection, Education, Personality, and Other Demographic Differences". As the title suggests, various psychological factors predicted variance in philosophers' answers to classic philosophical questions. This raises questions about how psychological and demographic differences can explain philosophical differences. There are also implications for scientific psychologists as well as academic philosophers. Byrd, N. (2023). Great Minds do not Think Alike: Philosophers’ Views Predicted by Reflection, Education, Personality, and Other Demographic Differences. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 14(2), 647–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-022-00628-y As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode was sponsored by Pimsluer. Pimsleur claims to help you become conversational in another language quickly and effectively so that you can understand and be understood when speaking to someone in another language. Find out more at imp.i271380.net/byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts Domain-familiarity & The Cognitive Reflection Test Philosophy As Proto-Psychology Multi-disciplinary Philosophy PhD Programs 9 Facts About People Who Study Philosophy How To Prepare For A Thesis Defense

In this episode, I read one of my 2022 articles in Metaphilosophy titled, "Bounded Reflectivism & Epistemic Identity". Does reflective reasoning help or hinder our judgment? In this paper, I take a middle view between reflectivism and anti-reflectivism that I call bounded reflectivism. The idea is that reflection is a tool that can be used to improve our judgment or for other purposes (such as to defend the beliefs that we consider essential to our identity—a.k.a., our "epistemic identity"). Byrd, N. (2022). Bounded Reflectivism & Epistemic Identity. Metaphilosophy, 53(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/meta.12534 As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This podcast was sponsored by Paying Green's Carbon Easy. Carbon Easy™ makes it easy for small and medium-sized businesses worldwide to reduce their carbon footprint in a measurable and publicly recognizable way. Find out how your company can meet its carbon goals at carboneasy.sjv.io/byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts What Is Reflective Reasoning? What good is reflective reasoning? On Whether Reflection Is A Skill On Whether Reflection Is A Virtue Upon Reflection Podcast, Ep. 8: Reflective Reasoning & Philosophy

On this episode, I read one of my articles from 2021 titled, "Reflective Reasoning and Philosophy" in Philosophy Compass. Both philosophers and cognitive scientists seem to think that philosophical thinking could depend on whether we reason intuitively or reflectively. In this paper, I review the claims, scientific methods, evidence, and what we may need to do to improve our understanding of reflection's role in philosophical thinking. Byrd, N. (2021). Reflective Reasoning & Philosophy. Philosophy Compass, 16(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12786 As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This podcast was sponsored by Scholly. Scholly helps students and graduates find life-changing scholarships and loan payoffs. Find out how to access Scholly's funding at schollyinc.sjv.io/byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts What Is Reflective Reasoning? Domain-familiarity & The Cognitive Reflection Test Christine Korsgaard on Reflection and Reflective Endorsement What Christopher Peacocke means by ‘Reflective Self-consciousness’ Upon Reflection Podcast, Ep. 6: Your Health vs. My Liberty (COVID-19 Research Paper)

On this episode of Upon Reflection, I read my 2021 paper in Logoi titled, "On Second Thought, Libet-style Unreflective Intentions May Be Compatible With Free Will". Imagine if I could predict your behavior before you even became conscious of your intention to behave that way. Would this mean that you don't have free will? I used to think so. In this paper, I explain why I was wrong: my view of free will involved magical thinking. Byrd, N. (2021). On Second Thought, Libet-style Unreflective Intentions May Be Compatible With Free Will. Lógoi, 39(23), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.62876/lr.vi039.5025 As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This podcast sponsored by DataCamp. DataCamp helps you make better use of data. You can build data skills online while learning from the world’s top data scientists. Find our more at datacamp.pxf.io/byrd. Students get a bonus 62% discount until August 25: You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts 6 Tips For Academic PresentationsOnline Conferences: Some history, methods & dataA Dissertation About Reflective Reasoning in Philosophy, Morality, & Bias15+ Podcasts about Cognitive Science40+ Podcasts about Philosophy

Welcome to the latest episode of Upon Reflection. This time, I read my paper with Michał Białek, "Your health vs. my liberty: Philosophical beliefs dominated reflection and identifiable victim effects when predicting public health recommendation compliance during the COVID-19 pandemic" (Total N = 998). As the title suggests we found that complying with public health recommendations didn't depend on whether people received messaging about identifiable COVID-19 victims or statistical victims in flatten the curve graphs. Rather compliance increased the more that people endorsed an effective altruist principle about reducing harm and the more that they endorsed the truth of scientific theories, but compliance decreased as people valued liberty more than equality. Importantly, we also found that people were less likely to prevent the spread of disease by wearing masks and staying at home if the pandemic was equally deadly, but labeled as a "flu" pandemic—-mostly because they perceived this as less threatening to society. We think this suggests that people's life-threatening decisions to flout public health recommendations like mask-wearing and staying at home during the COVID-19 pandemic was not just about ineffective messaging, but also about their prior philosophical commitments. Figures 1 and 2 from Byrd & Białek (2021): 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104649 As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This episode was sponsored by Pluralsight's courses in coding, design, cloud-based solutions, and more. You can find out more about Pluralsight and sign up for a free trial at pluralsight.pxf.io/byrd. You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts New paper: “Your Health vs. My Liberty” 4 Free DIY Data Analysis & Statistics Tools The meaning of 'statistical significance' and of p-values 15+ Podcasts about Cognitive Science 40+ Podcasts about Philosophy

Welcome to Upon Reflection. In this episode, I review the major take-aways and findings from my dissertation titled, "Reflective Reasoning For Real People". I explain what cognitive scientists mean by terms like "reflective reasoning", how reflection is measured empirically, how reflection can either help or hinder our reasoning, how more reflective philosophers tend toward certain philosophical beliefs, and how reflection may help us retrain our implicit biases. The recording is from my remote dissertation defense on May 29, 2020. You can find video of this dissertation overview (complete with the slideshow) below or on my YouTube Channel. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjOF8puPvIY As the chapters of the dissertation are accepted for publication in academic journals, the free preprints will become available on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". This podcast is brought to you by the scientists who put up with philosophers like me and the philosophers who put up with scientists like me. Long live natural philosophy. More seriously, if you want to support the podcast, my ongoing research, or my other projects, then you can do so at byrdnick.com/support. You can subscribe wherever you find podcasts and you can find out more about me at byrdnick.com, on Twitter (@byrd_nick), or on Facebook (@byrdnick). Comments and questions can be submitted at byrdnick.com/contact. And, of course, if you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your review. Related A Dissertation About Reflective Reasoning in Philosophy, Morality, & Bias Debiasing in Administration, Advising, & Teaching Is post-fact reasoning redeemable? Fact-checking is not enough: We need argument-checking The Base Rate Fallacy

In this episode of Upon Reflection, I explain how academics should conference better. More accurately, I read my chapter, "Online Conferences: Some History, Methods, and Benefits" from Right Research: Modelling Sustainable Research Practices in the Anthropocene. This chapter reviews some history of online academic conferencing going back to the 1970s, explain the potential advantages of online conferences, report quantitative and qualitative results from three online conferences, and urge scholars to consider how they can contribute to a more sustainable, inclusive, and emergency resilient academy by replicating these online conferences. Byrd, N. (2021). Online Conferences: Some History, Methods, and Benefits. In G. Rockwell, C. Miya, & O. Rossier (Eds.), Right Research: Modelling Sustainable Research Practices in the Anthropocene (pp. 435–462). Open Book Publishers. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0213.28 As with all of my writing, a free preprint can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". You can find the Upon Reflection podcast here or in your podcast app. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related posts New Paper: Online Conferences: Some History, Methods, and Benefits A Free, Online Philosophy Conference How To Record Professional Quality Presentations 15+ Podcasts about Cognitive Science 40+ Podcasts about Philosophy

In this podcast, I read my chapter, "Causal Network Accounts of Ill-being: Depression & Digital Well-being". The paper reviews how well-being and ill-being can be understood in terms of the causal networks studied by economists, neuroscientists, psychologists, and other scientists.

In this podcast episode , I'll be reading Paul Conway's and my recent paper about moral dilemmas entitled, "Not all who ponder count costs: Arithmetic reflection predicts utilitarian tendencies, but logical reflection predicts both deontological and utilitarian tendencies". In this paper we find that—contrary to some dual process theories' claims—consequentialist responses to moral dilemmas may not be more reflective per se, but rather more influenced by mathematical information. As with all of my papers, the free preprint of the paper can be found on my CV at byrdnick.com/cv under "Publications". Byrd, N., & Conway, P. (2019). Not all who ponder count costs: Arithmetic reflection predicts utilitarian tendencies, but logical reflection predicts both deontological and utilitarian tendencies. Cognition, 192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.007 If this sounds like the kind of research that you want to hear more about, you can subscribe to Upon Reflection wherever you find podcasts. You can also find out more about me and my research on Twitter via @byrd_nick, or on Facebook via @byrdnick. If you end up enjoying the Upon Reflection podcast, then feel free to tell people about it, online, in person, or in your ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️ review. Related Upon Reflection Podcast, Ep. 0: Introduction Upon Reflection Podcast, Ep. 1: What We Can Infer About Implicit Bias 10+ Podcasts about Cognitive Science 40+ Podcasts about Philosophy Is Reflective Reasoning Supposed To Change Your Mind? Christine Korsgaard on Reflection and Reflective Endorsement