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John Nilsson-Wright talks with Noah Sneider, the Economist’s bureau chief in Japan, on the ways in which the United States' two key Asian allies are adapting to an increasingly uncertain geopolitical environment, both in confronting hostile foreign powers and a United States that appears aggressively transactional and increasingly unreliable as a dependable ally. They discuss foreign policy, domestic politics, and the personal leadership strengths and weaknesses of the country’s two leaders, Prime Minister Takaichi Sanae and President Lee Jae Myung, as they grapple with the challenge of implementing far-reaching policy changes while keeping their domestic publics on side.

In this concluding episode of the On Geopolitics Explorations: War series, Professor William Hurst returns to the question that he began with: what is war? He pulls this thread through a review of the many themes and ideas explored with his guests throughout the series.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Ayşe Zarakol, Professor of International Relations at the University of Cambridge. They discuss how empire models and concepts of international orders have shifted over time. They also consider how history and historical grievances can be mobilised politically, as forces that lead a state towards war or predispose a state not to go to war.

Professor John Nilsson-Wright talks to Dr Nick Wright, a neuroscientist and adviser to the Pentagon Joint Staff who researches the brain, technology and security at University College London, Georgetown University, the Center for Strategic and International Studies, and the National Defence University in Washington, DC. They consider how fear, perception, misperception, and memory are tied to different physiological elements of the brain, and how they influence our predisposition to engage in conflict. While we may be conditioned to engage in conflict, we also have the capacity, unlike other species, to reflect on our own internal mental processes — a capacity that offers an optimistic basis for minimising the risk of conflict in the future.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Tang Shiping, Distinguished Professor of International Relations at Fudan University. They discuss the origins of war and the reasons why states fight. They also consider how war has become a defining force in shaping international order, and examine the social evolution of the rules that surround order.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Ron Hassner, the Chancellor's Professor of Political Science and Helen Diller Family Chair in Israel Studies at the University of California, Berkeley. They discuss the importance of understanding the religious terrain of a country when going to war with it, and the necessity of states engaging religious leaders, and those with religious expertise, when making decisions around war.

Professor John Nilsson-Wright talks with Sir Robin Niblett, former Director of the leading British think-tank Chatham House, about the key foreign policy challenges and opportunities facing the Labour Government of Sir Keir Starmer. They discuss the legacy of previous Conservative governments’ foreign policies, key bilateral relationships with the United States, China, and Britain’s European and Indo-Pacific partners, and the perennial challenge of balancing strategic priorities against the economic constraints associated with slow growth and rising national debt. At a pivotal time in domestic politics, following Labour’s poor performance in Britain’s recent local elections, they also consider the Prime Minister’s political future and the prospects for British foreign policy of a change in the Labour leadership or a future transition to a new UK government.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Dr Rohan Mukherjee, Assistant Professor in the Department of International Relations at the London School of Economics and Deputy Director of LSE IDEAS. They consider how some states may act aggressively to prove their great power status and to seek recognition from other states. They also discuss states’ need of symbolic equality, particularly those that experience a potential gap between their capabilities and the degree of respect they receive.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Peter Trubowtiz, Professor of International Relations and Director of the Phelan US Centre at the London School of Economics. They discuss liberal versus realist approaches to war. They look at how political economy and security considerations interact, and consider how domestic politics have profound impacts upon how states behave internationally.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Caroline Baxter, Director of the Converging Risks Lab at the Council on Strategic Risks and former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Force Education and Training within the United States Office of the Secretary of Defense. They discuss the necessity of focusing on critical vulnerabilities –such as those resulting from climate change, AI, or quantum technologies– as wars continue to be fought through non-traditional means.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Ian Hurd, Professor of Political Science and President of the Faculty Senate at Northwestern University. They discuss how norms, laws and expectations can prevent and impact wars. They analyse how waging wars became less legally permissible in the 20th century, and how the use of new technologies developed in the 21st century have greyed legal constructs around war.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Dr Lauren Sukin, the John G. Winant Associate Professor in US Foreign Policy in the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Oxford. They discuss the prevention of war through deterrence and institutional arrangements, or security architectures, which increasingly face difficulties as global conflicts become more complex.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Jack Snyder, the Robert and Renée Belfer Professor of International Relations at Columbia University, to discuss confrontational diplomacy and its unintended consequences, particularly throughout the world wars. They also discuss how the offensive approach of authoritarian states leads them to struggle in the balance of power game compared to democracies.

Professor William Hurst is joined by Dr Victoria Vdovychenko, Joint Programme Leader at the Centre's Future of Ukraine Programme, to discuss how, whilst fighting for its sovereignty amidst Russia's full-scale invasion, Ukraine navigates democratic responsiveness to its citizens, innovation to improve its war-fighting technologies, and its international alliances.

Former British Army officer Lieutenant General Doug Chalmers — who served as Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Military Strategy & Operations) from 2018 to 2021, and is the current Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge — joins Professor William Hurst to discuss the importance of having local and regional political understandings whilst carrying out military campaigns. They also explore how actors in war should understand their own positionalities, and reflect on how their own biases and relationships impact their knowledge and judgements.