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We conclude our series on the standard model with an introduction to gauge theory. We discuss how the requirement of local gauge invariance generates interaction terms in the Lagrangian, and introduce the U(1) x SU(2) x SU(3) group structure of the standard model. We also consider the problem of massive W and Z bosons, and how this was resolved by the introduction of the Higgs field and the mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 163: The Standard Model of Particle Physics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the particles and forces that constitute the standard model of particle physics. After some historical background, we introduce each of the three fundamental forces that comprise the standard model - electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. We then compare and contrast the different types of particles these forces interact with, including the difference between fermions and bosons, and between quarks and leptons. We consider the types of interactions experienced by these particles and the three generations of matter. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 158 & 159: Quantum Electrodynamics Parts 1 and 2. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Beginning with primitive Cynodonts in the late Permian, we our evolutionary development through Mesozoic mammaliaforms, the divergence of monotremes from marsupials and placentals, and culiminating in the emergence of primates in the early Cenozoic. Along the way we discuss the emergence of important traits such as the mammalian ear and various primate adaptations for arboreal life. We then discuss the sequence of hominin species in the lead up to to humans, including Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus, and Neanderthals. We conclude with an analysis of the emergence of distinctive human traits, including bipedalism, encephalisation, and extensive tool use. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 161: Dinosaurs and Other Ancient Reptiles. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A survey of extinct animal species from the Permian through the Cretaceous periods. We discuss important differences between anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids, and then review diverse species from all groups, including pelycosaurs, therapsids, parareptiles, euryapsids, pterosaurs, pseudosuchia, and dinosaurs. We also consider aspects including bipedal gait, endothermy, gigantism, and the cause of the end Cretaceous mass extinction. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 160: The Evolution of Animals. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the evolutionary history of animals, beginning with the split of the metazoans from protists about 760 million years ago and ending with the rise of the amniotes about 340 million years ago. The focus is the development of key morphological traits necessary for more complex animal forms, including the origin of true tissues, bilaterial symmetry, the complete gut, the coelom, internal skeletons, and limbs. We conclude with an analysis of key adaptions that allowed amniotes to life in a wider range of terrestrial habitats. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 155: Embryology and Development and Episode 157: The Geologic Time Scale. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Continuing from quantum electrodynamics part 1, here we explore the mathematical machinery used to compute interactions between particles, including propagators, Feynman diagrams, cross sections. We then walk through a simple example calculation to illustrate how these tools are applied. I conclude with an introduction to the problem of divergent loop integrals and how these can be resolved using renormalisation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 158: Quantum Electrodynamics Part 1.  If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A detailed look into the physics and mathematics of quantum electrodynamics, the theory of how light and matter interact. We discuss the generalisation of the Schrodinger equation to the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations, and howw these describe the propogation of light and fermions respectively. We then consider the process of computing transition probabilities between quantum states, including the S matrix and perturbation theory, and Wick's theorem. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 85: Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A survey of the Earth's history through the lens of the geologic timescale. We begin with a discussion of the terminology of geochronologic units and how they are specified using 'golden spikes'. We then review the development of Earth's atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere through the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons. We cover many topics including the supercontinent cycle, the great oxidation event, the evolution of eukaryotes, the Cambrian explosion, and mass extinctions. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 156: Fossils and Dating Methods. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the techniques used to study the history and ages of geological speciments. We begin with an overview of chronostratigraphy,  covering principles of relative dating, way up indicators, and biostratigraphy. We then discuss geochronology, including a review of early attempts to determine the age of the Earth, the principles and assumptions of radiometric dating, and the radioisotopes most commonly used for dating. Finally, we discuss processes and mechanisms of fossilisation, and review some of the most important classes of index fossils. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 74: Minerals and Rocks, and Episode 77: Nuclear Physics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the process of development, beginning with fertilisation and covering the stages of blastocyst formation, implantation into the uterus, gastrulation and its constituent cell movements, neurulation and the role of the notochord, and the beginnings of organogenesis. We also discuss the differences in gastrulation between protostomes and deuterostomes, along with the many specialised structures found in amniotes to protect the growing embryo from drying out. We conclude with overview of some of the genetic mechanisms government the development process, including Hox genes and their role in governing genetic regulatory networks. Recommended prelistening is Episode 25: Tissues, Organs, and Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), beginning from the basic physics of nuclear magnetic resonance, and covering the use of radiowaves to excite nuclear spin states, and the T1 and T2 modes of relaxation. We then explore how these phenomena are used to produce 3d images, including magnetic field gradients, frequency encoding, phase encoding, and Fourier transforms. We conclude with a discussion of functional imaging, including the haemodynamic response, the BOLD signal, echo planar imaging, and the steps of preprocesing. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 14: Principles of Quantum Mechanics, and Episode 61: Magnetism. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A review of the carbohydrate insulin model of obesity and the related proposal that low carbohydrate diets are superior to traditional low fat diets. I begin with a discussion of the theory behind the carbohydrate insulin model, and then assess its plausibility using relevant evidence from rodent studies, dietary studies, ahd controlled feeding experiments. I argue that the scientific evidence does not support the alleged benefits of low carb diets for weight loss in otherwise healthy adults. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 151: Diet and Nutrition, and Episode 152: Obesity, Diabetes, and Hypertension. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An interview with Ariel Zeleznikow-Johnston, author of the book 'The Future Loves You: How and Why We Should Abolish Death'. We begin by discussing how best to define death, focusing on the idea of death as the permanent disruption of psychological identity, and how such identity is constituted by our personality, desires, and memories. We then consider the science of brain preservation, including the recently-developed technique of Aldehyde-Stabilized Cryopreservation, and how it could be used to indefinitely preserve the brain structure that encodes or personal identity. Ariel argues that such a preserved brain could potentially be used to construct a digital simulation of our brains, essentially allowing us to survive the biological death of our bodies. We conclude by considering some potential challenges of implementign such a technology, and whether it would achieve widespread social acceptance. Ariel's book: The Future Loves You: How and Why We Should Abolish Death Turning Fate into Choice: Patient Self-Determination and Life Extension More on brain preservation: A case for developing Aldehyde Stabilized Cryopreservation into a medical procedure How much protein structure loss is there following glutaraldehyde crosslinking? Large Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement Mapping the Drosophila brain: The connectome of an insect brain | Science

A review of the science between the metabolic syndrome, including discussion of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. We discuss the pathophysiology of how enlargement of adipocytes disrupts metabolic signalling pathways and leads to buildup of lipid intermediates. We then consider how these effects impair health, examining the causes of insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, and dysregulation of blood pressure. We conclude by looking at how such symptoms lead to pathology and increased mortality in overweight and obese individuals. Recommended prelistening is Episode 151: Diet and Nutrition, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to human nutrition, in which we discuss the nutritional importance and role of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, before considering the effects of malnutrition, how it is measured, and its prevalence around the world. We conclude with an analysis of basal metabolic rate, reviewing evidence concerning its variability across persons and factors that affect it. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything