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What is consciousness? Julian Jaynes rejects all of the popular answers: that consciousness is thinking, reason, memory, or the capacity for learning. Nor does he think it can be accounted for as a merely accumulative development of "sentience" through evolution. In his controversial work, Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Jaynes puts forward the hypothesis that consciousness is generated out of language, and therefore that language predates consciousness. Jaynes' argument has sweeping implications for human history and civilization, and he presents evidence for his case through psychological experiments on consciousness, the neurology of schizophrenia, and through the analysis of ancient texts such as the Iliad of Homer. The shocking claim made in this book is that the Greeks of the Iliad were not conscious in the way that we are, but experienced their volition in the form of admonitory voices - actually, a communication from the right hemisphere of the brain to the left, using language as a kind of code - but which the ancients experienced as the voices of gods.

In this episode, we're going to discuss what is likely the founding text of the Zen tradition, the Laṅkāvatāra Sutra. According to some of the earliest sources on Bodhidharma, the founder of Zen in China, the "Lanka" was the teaching whose "abstruse principle" he passed down to his successor, Huike. Within the same story, Huike laments that within only a few generations, the sutra will pass into obscurity - which is exactly what has happened. Though few read this text today, during my time in Zen, I found the Lanka's philosophical presentation of the "mind only" teaching to be uniquely intriguing among all the Buddhist scriptures I'd read. Join me on this exploration of the Buddha's teaching in Lanka, including an analysis of the eight consciousness model of the mind, the concept of paravrrti, the non-reliance on either existence or non-existence, and sublime teaching that the world is nothing other than mind. My Diagram: https://untimely-reflections.blogspot.com/2026/09/lankavatara-sutra-my-diagram-of-eight.html

This episode begins with an analysis of Baizhang's wild fox koan found in the Wumenguan, which we will use as a jumping off point for understanding the paradoxical relationship of the enlightened person with karma. This opens up into the general problem of discussing reality from the perspective of sunyata, in which samsara and nirvana become equivalent - because, so long as one approaches from the perspective of conceptual thought, they will remain forever unequivalent, and all such statements will be false or misleading. Join me as we discuss karma, the bodhisattva vow, "plucking out the eye of Buddha and sitting in its hollow", the meaning of "just sitting" in zazen, and the time when St. Francis made the sign of the cross to a cauterizing iron and blessed his brother, fire.

UPDATE: I accidentally uploaded part two to Spotify instead of part one. This has been fixed. To those who got to listen to the entire two-parter already already, lucky! But, the audio should now be part one. Join me for a deep dive into Nishitani's opus, Religion and Nothingness: an intersection of philosophy and religion, east and west, Heidegger and the Mahayana. The topics I choose to emphasize in my reading are: the "double exposure" whereby the two layers of reality (being and nihility) are simultaneously perceived; the mechanization of the world, which serves to objectify the scientific worldview; Nietzsche's answer to this problem, as Nishitani understands it; the religious quest, in which one pushes through nihility, subsuming their entire life and body within the "great doubt"; finally, the standpoint of sunyata in which emptiness is perceived as the ground of being.

For all that is admirable in Buddhism, Nietzsche fundamentally opposes the movement towards the Last Man that Buddhism not only cannot oppose, but may even help bring forth. Why does the notion of a "European Buddhism" haunt Nietzsche's later writings? We will explore this question here: how a religion that is realistic, empirical, and achieves great practical success in the relief of suffering isnevertheless inevitably aimed at uprooting all action and delivering man to a state of passivity. Here we find another religion of pity, and another denial of the world - merely deprived of the sensualism and moral fanaticism of Christianity. Were such a religion to take hold in the West, Nietzsche believes, the opportunity of moment, which we face as a consequence of the death of God, would be squandered. Join me in exploring more sutras, as well Nietzsche's criticisms of Buddhism in The Gay Science, Daybreak, Beyond Good and Evil, and the Will to Power.

Welcome back to The Nietzsche Podcast, Season Seven! We're beginning with a two-part episode concerning Nietzsche's view of Buddhism. This episode, we will consider some of the basic teachings of Buddhism, and explore why Nietzsche viewed Buddhism with admiration. A repeated refrain in The Antichrist concerns Buddhism's superiority over Christianity. Why is it that Nietzsche considered Buddhism, a religion with a complex metaphysics and cosmology, to be a far more realistic and logical religion than Christianity? We are pointed in the direction of an answer in Nietzsche's description of Buddhism as "the religion of self-redemption". The following episode will concern Nietzsche's criticisms of Buddhism.

Season seven begins soon! For now, enjoy a selection of fascinating questions.

We've finally arrived at the conclusion of The Gay Science. The theme of these final sections is perspectivism - we have opened up a "new infinite", penetrating beyond narrow, limited views of the world that have always made grand claims to universalism but have only ever trapped us in dogmatic certainties. Nietzsche sums up his new affirmative attitude as a quest for "the great health", which one does not possess, but must continually give up. This great health has for its image a kind of abundant playfulness that is both human and superhuman. By making all that was once sacred and serious into our playthings, the true seriousness can begin. We conclude with a reading of one of Nietzsche's "songs". Episode art: Allegory of the Planets and Continents, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

We incomprehensible ones - how our thought branches in every direction, how willing we are to shed our bark, to grow, to change! In this episode, we discuss, among many other sections, important passages such as "What is Romanticism" - in which Nietzsche explains how he departed from the romantic pessimism of Wagner and Schopenhauer. He opposes the theater to music, fully breaking with his earlier views in Birth of Tragedy. Nietzsche also flips the script on some of his previous views regarding academics, and suggests that the scholarly specialist is a type of higher value than the so-called "man of letters", the master of nothing who represents himself as everything. Here, the hermit and the cynic speak, and Nietzsche spares no one his criticism. Episode art: The Tree of Life by Gustav Klimt

In this chapter of our readthrough, we confront "the problem of the actor". Nietzsche predicts that things shall become ever more "artistic" in Europe, as the actor's talent self-falsification becomes developed in all members of society. Whereas in the Middle Ages, the individual was bound to his role as an unchangeable identity, the modern person picks up and discards roles: he gives the appearance of being a given type, but is often obliged to change roles. Nietzsche continues to increasingly offer reversals of perspective, at times even differing with previous assertions in this very same work. Episode art: Giandomenico Tiepolo, Pulcinella in Love, 1797 (A depiction of the masked actors of the Commedia dell'arte).

The grand experiment continues with a series of naturalistic explanations for the origins of ideas or modes of life. The scholar's intellectual habits are inherited "in blood and instinct"; Spinoza's philosophy is sourced to his sickliness; Darwinian theories of evolution are a product of the "musty air" of English overpopulation; religious and moralistic perspectives are the post hoc rationalizations of the weak and the tame. In this episode we'll also discuss the very important section, "On the Genius of the Species", which treats consciousness as an organ of communication. Episode art: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman by Rembrandt

"You tremble, carcass?" After a long hiatus, we shall now fearlessly embark upon book V of The Gay Science, added to the text in 1887. In this final division of the text, we'll see Nietzsche's attempt to incorporate his late philosophy, as the conclusion of his middle period meditations. Some of the hardest-hitting sections in the book appear here. Join me on this quixotic journey for the truth... after all, we, too, are still pious! Episode art: Portrait of Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne (1611–1675), as Marshall of France on horseback, by Charles le Brun

You know what it is. Questions get answered. The Gay Science readthrough begins in a week's time.

"You, whoever you are, reading me - take your own chance. Just as, at the moment of writing, I gamble with you." The much-awaited conclusion to season six is here! The year is 1944, and we follow Georges Bataille through the months of February to August as he recounts the end of the Nazi occupation of France, while writing of his daily encounters, his inner experiences, first-hand accounts of the war, mad ramblings and poems - and astute, if sometimes confusing, commentary on the work of Nietzsche. In this episode we will explore the will to chance, immanence vs. transcendence, desire as "time-being", and the possibility of affirming desire in itself and for itself, having fully seen through the lie of every "end" or "goal" presented to us by the mad pursuit of passion. The Gay Science readthrough episodes coming soon!

The two-part conclusion of season six begins. We're delving into the work of Georges Bataille, with a focus on his book, "On Nietzsche". Bataille is one of the most interesting intellectual nodes of 20th century philosophy. For a long time, his work was obscure in the English-speaking world, often eclipsed by those he influenced, such as Derrida and Foucault. However, among the postmodernists, Bataille takes Nietzsche as his closest companion, and struggles most fiercely with him. On Nietzsche is written during the war years, and is a very strange book that defies categorization. We'll talk about the background of the text, Bataille's life, the secret society Acephale, and the main ideas in Summit and Decline. In the next episode, we'll discuss 1944 diaries with a focus on the philosophical ideas therein.